Occurrence of Attributes in Original Text
The text related to the cultural heritage 'Heard and McDonald Islands' has mentioned 'Island' in the following places:
| Occurrence Sentence | Text Source |
|---|---|
| Territory of Heard and McDonald IslandsSatellite image of the southern tip of Heard Island. | WIKI |
| The Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands[1][2] (HIMI[3]) is an Australian external territory comprising a volcanic group of mostly barren Antarctic islands, about two-thirds of the way from Madagascar to Antarctica. | WIKI |
| Contents 1 History 2 Geography 2.1 Wetlands 2.2 Climate 3 Wildlife 3.1 Flora 3.1.1 Constraints 3.1.2 History 3.1.3 Flowering plants and ferns 3.1.4 Mosses and liverworts 3.1.5 Algae 3.1.6 Vegetation communities 3.1.7 Outlook 3.2 Fungi 3.3 Fauna 3.3.1 Mammals 3.3.2 Birds 3.3.3 Terrestrial, freshwater and coastal invertebrates 3.4 Retreat of Heard Island glaciers 4 Administration and economy 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links | WIKI |
| Heard Island 1887 by Henry Wood Elliott[6] | WIKI |
| An American sailor, John Heard, on the ship Oriental, sighted Heard Island on 25 November 1853, en route from Boston to Melbourne. | WIKI |
| He reported the discovery one month later and had the island named after him. | WIKI |
| In the sailing period from 1855 to 1880 a number of American sealers spent a year or more on the island, living in appalling conditions in dark smelly huts, also at Oil Barrel Point. | WIKI |
| By 1880, sealers had wiped out most of the seal population and then left the island. | WIKI |
| The first recorded landing on McDonald Island was made by Australian scientists Grahame Budd and Hugh Thelander on 12 February 1971, using a helicopter. | WIKI |
| There were at least five private expeditions to Heard Island between 1965 and 2000. | WIKI |
| Two amateur radio DXpeditions to the island took place in 1983 using the callsigns VK0HI (the Anaconda expedition)[10] and VK0JS and VK0NL (the Cheynes II expedition), with a further operation in January 1997 (VK0IR). | WIKI |
| Mawson Peak, atop Big Ben, was first climbed on 25 January 1965 by five members of the Southern Indian Ocean Expedition to Heard Island (sometimes referred to as the Patanela expedition). | WIKI |
| [12] The second ascent was made by five members of the Heard Island Expedition 1983 (sometimes referred to as the Anaconda expedition). | WIKI |
| In 1991, the islands were the location for the Heard Island feasibility test, an experiment in very long-distance transmission of low frequency sound through the ocean. | WIKI |
| See also: Heard Island glaciers | WIKI |
| Heard Island and McDonald Islands | WIKI |
| Heard Island | WIKI |
| Heard Island, by far the largest of the group, is a 368-square-kilometre (142xc2xa0sqxc2xa0mi) mountainous island covered by 41 glaciers[15] (the island is 80% covered with ice[1]) and dominated by the Big Ben massif. | WIKI |
| The much smaller and rocky McDonald Islands are located 44 kilometres (27xc2xa0mi) to the west of Heard Island. | WIKI |
| They consist of McDonald Island (186 metres (610xc2xa0ft) high), Flat Island (55 metres (180xc2xa0ft) high) and Meyer Rock (170 metres (560xc2xa0ft) high). | WIKI |
| They total approximately 2.5 square kilometres (1.0xc2xa0sqxc2xa0mi) in area, where McDonald Island is 1.13 square kilometres (0.4xc2xa0sqxc2xa0mi). | WIKI |
| There is a small group of islets and rocks about 10 kilometres (6xc2xa0mi) north of Heard Island, consisting of Shag Islet, Sail Rock, Morgan Island and Black Rock. | WIKI |
| Mawson Peak and McDonald Island are the only two active volcanoes in Australian territory. | WIKI |
| [18] The volcano on McDonald Island, after being dormant for 75,000 years, became active in 1992 and has erupted several times since, the most recent in 2005. | WIKI |
| Heard Island and the McDonald Islands have no ports or harbours; ships must anchor offshore. | WIKI |
| Heard Island has a number of small wetland sites scattered around its coastal perimeter, including areas of wetland vegetation, lagoons or lagoon complexes, rocky shores and sandy shores, including the Elephant Spit. | WIKI |
| Some wetland areas have been recorded on McDonald Island but, due to substantial volcanic activity since the last landing was made in 1980, their present extent is unknown. | WIKI |
| On Heard Island, the majority of these types suites are found below 150xc2xa0m asl. | WIKI |
| Vortex shedding as winds pass Heard Island resulted in this Kxc3xa1rmxc3xa1n vortex street in the clouds | WIKI |
| Monthly average temperatures at Atlas Cove (at the northwestern end of Heard Island) range from 0.0 to 4.2xc2xa0xc2xb0C (32.0 to 39.6xc2xa0xc2xb0F), with an average daily range of 3.7 to 5.2xc2xa0xc2xb0C (38.7 to 41.4xc2xa0xc2xb0F) in summer and xe2x88x920.8 to 0.3xc2xa0xc2xb0C (30.6 to 32.5xc2xa0xc2xb0F) in winter. | WIKI |
| Annual precipitation at sea level on Heard Island is on the order of 1,300 to 1,900xc2xa0mm (51.2 to 74.8xc2xa0in); rain or snow falls on about 3 out of 4 days. | WIKI |
| Meteorological records at Heard Island are incomplete. | WIKI |
| Climate data for Heard Island, 12 m asl (1981xe2x80x932010 normals) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high xc2xb0C (xc2xb0F) 20.1(68.2) 18.0(64.4) 19.9(67.8) 20.4(68.7) 19.3(66.7) 14.0(57.2) 15.0(59.0) 15.4(59.7) 16.8(62.2) 16.4(61.5) 14.6(58.3) 19.2(66.6) 20.4(68.7) Average high xc2xb0C (xc2xb0F) 6.4(43.5) 6.5(43.7) 6.3(43.3) 5.3(41.5) 3.7(38.7) 2.3(36.1) 2.2(36.0) 2.2(36.0) 2.2(36.0) 3.3(37.9) 4.1(39.4) 5.4(41.7) 4.2(39.5) Daily mean xc2xb0C (xc2xb0F) 4.7(40.5) 4.8(40.6) 4.6(40.3) 3.6(38.5) 2.2(36.0) 0.9(33.6) 0.5(32.9) 0.4(32.7) 0.5(32.9) 1.5(34.7) 2.4(36.3) 3.8(38.8) 2.5(36.5) Average low xc2xb0C (xc2xb0F) 3.0(37.4) 3.1(37.6) 2.8(37.0) 1.9(35.4) 0.7(33.3) xe2x88x920.6(30.9) xe2x88x921.1(30.0) xe2x88x921.4(29.5) xe2x88x921.1(30.0) xe2x88x920.2(31.6) 0.7(33.3) 2.1(35.8) 0.8(33.5) Record low xc2xb0C (xc2xb0F) xe2x88x920.5(31.1) 0.2(32.4) xe2x88x921.7(28.9) xe2x88x922.9(26.8) xe2x88x924.8(23.4) xe2x88x927.2(19.0) xe2x88x926.2(20.8) xe2x88x9211.5(11.3) xe2x88x928.6(16.5) xe2x88x927.1(19.2) xe2x88x926.2(20.8) xe2x88x920.7(30.7) xe2x88x9211.5(11.3) Source 1: Mxc3xa9txc3xa9o climat stats[21] Source 2: Mxc3xa9txc3xa9o Climat [22] | WIKI |
| [23] Low plant diversity reflects the islandsxe2x80x99 isolation, small size, severe climate, the short, cool growing season and, for Heard Island, substantial permanent ice cover. | WIKI |
| At Heard Island, exposure to salt spray and the presence of breeding and moulting seabirds and seals are particularly strong influences on vegetation composition and structure in coastal areas. | WIKI |
| Evidence from microfossil records indicates that ferns and woody plants were present on Heard Island during the Tertiary (a period with a cool and moist climate). | WIKI |
| The vascular flora comprises the smallest number of species of any major subantarctic island group, reflecting its isolation, small ice-free area and severe climate. | WIKI |
| Twelve vascular species are known from Heard Island, of which five have also been recorded on McDonald Island. | WIKI |
| Heard Island is the largest subantarctic island with no confirmed human-introduced plants. | WIKI |
| Areas available for plant colonisation on Heard Island are generally the result of retreating glaciers or new ice-free land created by lava flows. | WIKI |
| Today, substantial vegetation covers over 20xc2xa0km2 of Heard Island, and is best developed on coastal areas at elevations below 250xc2xa0m. | WIKI |
| Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) contribute substantially to the overall biodiversity of Heard Island, with 43 mosses and 19 liverworts being recorded, often occupying habitats unsuitable for vascular plants, such as cliff faces. | WIKI |
| A 1980 survey of McDonald Island found lower diversity than that on Heard Island; four mosses and a number of algal species are recorded from there. | WIKI |
| At least 100 species of terrestrial algae are known from Heard Island, commonly in permanently moist and ephemeral habitats. | WIKI |
| Forests of the giant Antarctic kelp Durvillaea antarctica occur at a number of sites around Heard Island and at least 17 other species of seaweed are known, with more to be added following the identification of recent collections. | WIKI |
| Low seaweed diversity is due to the island's isolation from other land masses, unsuitable beach habitat, constant abrasion by waves, tides and small stones, and the extension of glaciers into the sea in many areas. | WIKI |
| Heard Island has a range of terrestrial environments in which vegetation occurs. | WIKI |
| Open cushionfield vegetation is the most widespread and abundant vegetation type on Heard Island. | WIKI |
| One of the most rapidly changing physical settings in the subantarctic has been produced on Heard Island by a combination of rapid glacial recession and climate warming. | WIKI |
| [citation needed] The consequent increase in habitat available for plant colonisation, plus the coalescing of previously discrete ice-free areas, has led to marked changes in the vegetation of Heard Island in the last 20 years or so. | WIKI |
| Other species and vegetation communities found on subantarctic islands north of the Antarctic Convergence now absent from the Heard Island flora may colonise the island if climate change produces more favourable conditions. | WIKI |
| One plant species on Heard Island, Poa annua, a cosmopolitan grass native to Europe, was possibly introduced by humans, though is more likely to have arrived naturally, probably by skuas from the Kerguelen Islands where it is widespread. | WIKI |
| It was initially recorded in 1987 in two deglaciated areas of Heard Island not previously exposed to human visitors, while being absent from known sites of past human habitation. | WIKI |
| Expeditioner boot traffic during the Australian Antarctic program expedition in 1987 may be at least partly responsible for the spread, but it is probably mainly due to dispersal by wind and the movement of seabirds and seals around the island. | WIKI |
| 71 species of lichens have been recorded from Heard Island and they are common on exposed rock, dominating the vegetation in some areas. | WIKI |
| [26] As with plants, a 1980 survey of McDonald Island found lower diversity there, with just eight lichen species and a number of non-lichenized fungi recorded. | WIKI |
| See also: List of non-avian fauna of Heard Island and McDonald Islands | WIKI |
| Further information: List of mammals of Heard Island and McDonald Islands | WIKI |
| Processing elephant seals on Heard Island xe2x80x93 a 19th-century scene | WIKI |
| Sealing at Heard Island lasted from 1855 to 1910, during which time 67 sealing vessels are recorded visiting, nine of which were wrecked off the coast. | WIKI |
| Heard Island and the McDonald Islands are free from introduced predators and provide crucial breeding habitat in the middle of the vast Southern Ocean for a range of birds. | WIKI |
| Nineteen species of birds have been recorded as breeding on Heard Island[32] and the McDonald Islands, although recent volcanic activity at the McDonald Islands in the last decade is likely to have reduced vegetated and un-vegetated nesting areas. | WIKI |
| The penguins mostly colonise the coastal tussock and grasslands of Heard Island, and have previously been recorded as occupying the flats and gullies on McDonald Island. | WIKI |
| Other seabirds recorded as breeding at Heard Island include three species of albatross (wandering, black-browed and light-mantled albatrosses, southern giant petrels, Cape petrels, four species of burrowing petrels Antarctic and Fulmar prions, common and South Georgian diving-petrels), Wilson's storm-petrels, kelp gulls, subantarctic skuas, Antarctic terns and the Heard shag. | WIKI |
| [33] Although not a true seabird, the Heard Island subspecies of the black-faced sheathbill also breeds on the island. | WIKI |
| Both the shag and the sheathbill are endemic to Heard Island. | WIKI |
| All recorded breeding species, other than the Heard Island sheathbill, are listed marine species under the Australian Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Act (1999, four are listed as threatened species and five are listed migratory species. | WIKI |
| Under the EPBC Act a recovery plan has been made for albatrosses and giant petrels, which calls for ongoing population monitoring of the species found at HIMI, and at the time of preparing this plan a draft recovery plan has also been made for the Heard Island cormorant (or shag) and Antarctic tern. | WIKI |
| The king penguin population is the best studied seabird species on Heard Island and has shown a dramatic increase since first recorded in 1947/48, with the population doubling every five years or so for more than 50 years. | WIKI |
| Heard Island supports a relatively low number of terrestrial invertebrate species compared to other Southern Ocean islands, in parallel with the low species richness in the floraxe2x80x93that is, the island's isolation and limited ice-free area. | WIKI |
| An exotic species of earthworm Dendrodrilus rubidus was also collected in 1929 from a dump near Atlas Cove, and has recently been collected from a variety of habitats including wallows, streams and lakes on Heard Island. | WIKI |
| The arthropods of Heard Island are comparatively well known with 54 species of mite and tick, one spider and eight springtails recorded. | WIKI |
| Despite a few recent surveys, the non-arthropod invertebrate fauna of Heard Island remain poorly known. | WIKI |
| Beetles and flies dominate Heard Island's known insect fauna, which comprises up to 21 species of ectoparasite (associated with birds and seals) and up to 13 free-living species. | WIKI |
| Distinct differences in relative abundances of species between habitats has also been shown, including a negative relationship between altitude and body size for Heard Island weevils. | WIKI |
| The fauna of the freshwater pools, lakes, streams and mires found in the coastal areas of Heard Island are broadly similar to those on other subantarctic islands of the southern Indian Ocean. | WIKI |
| Many species reported from Heard Island are found elsewhere. | WIKI |
| As with the other shore biota, the marine macro-invertebrate fauna of Heard Island is similar in composition and local distribution to other subantarctic islands, although relatively little is known about the Heard Island communities compared with the well-studied fauna of some other islands in the subantarctic region, such as Macquarie and Kerguelen. | WIKI |
| Despite Heard Island's isolation, species richness is considered to be moderate, rather than depauperate, although the number of endemic species reported is low. | WIKI |
| The large macro-alga Durvillaea antarctica supports a diverse array of invertebrate taxa and may play an important role in transporting some of this fauna to Heard Island. | WIKI |
| The rocky shores of Heard Island exhibit a clear demarcation between fauna of the lower kelp holdfast zone and the upper shore zone community, probably due to effects of desiccation, predation and freezing in the higher areas. | WIKI |
| Retreat of Heard Island glaciers[edit] | WIKI |
| Heard Island is a heavily glaciated, subantarctic volcanic island located in the Southern Ocean, roughly 4000 kilometers southwest of Australia. | WIKI |
| 80% of the island is covered in ice, with glaciers descending from 2400 meters to sea level. | WIKI |
| [36] Due to the steep topography of Heard Island, most of its glaciers are relatively thin (averaging only about 55 meters in depth). | WIKI |
| [37] The presence of glaciers on Heard Island provides an excellent opportunity to measure the rate of glacial retreat as an indicator of climate change. | WIKI |
| [39] Winston Glacier, which retreated approximately one mile between 1947 and 1963, appears to be a very sensitive indicator of glacier change on the island. | WIKI |
| Retreat of glacier fronts across Heard Island is evident when comparing aerial photographs taken in December 1947 with those taken on a return visit in early 1980. | WIKI |
| [36][40] Retreat of Heard Island glaciers is most dramatic on the eastern section of the island, where the termini of former tidewater glaciers are now located inland. | WIKI |
| During the time period between 1947 and 1988, the total area of Heard Island's glaciers decreased by 11%, from 288xc2xa0km2 (roughly 79% of the total area of Heard Island) to only 257xc2xa0km2. | WIKI |
| [37] A visit to the island in the spring of 2000 found that the Stephenson, Brown and Baudissin glaciers, among others, had retreated even further. | WIKI |
| Possible causes of glacier recession on Heard Island include: | WIKI |
| The Australian Antarctic Division conducted an expedition to Heard Island during the austral summer of 2003xe2x80x9304. | WIKI |
| A small team of scientists spent two months on the island, conducting studies on avian and terrestrial biology and glaciology. | WIKI |
| [41] Based on the findings of that expedition, the rate of loss of glacier ice on Heard Island appears to be accelerating. | WIKI |
| The increase in the rate of ice loss suggests that the glaciers of Heard Island are reacting to ongoing climate change, rather than approaching dynamic equilibrium. | WIKI |
| [40] The retreat of Heard Island's glaciers is expected to continue for the foreseeable future. | WIKI |
| Heard Island, 1929. | WIKI |
| The United Kingdom formally established its claim to Heard Island in 1910, marked by the raising of the Union Flag and the erection of a beacon by Captain Evensen, master of the Mangoro. | WIKI |
| Effective government, administration and control of Heard Island and the McDonald Islands was transferred to the Australian government on 26 December 1947 at the commencement of the first Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition (ANARE) to Heard Island, with a formal declaration that took place at Atlas Cove. | WIKI |
| The islands are a territory (Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands) of Australia administered from Hobart by the Australian Antarctic Division of the Australian Department of the Environment and Energy. | WIKI |
| The administration of the territory is established in the Heard Island and McDonald Islands Act 1953, which places it under the laws of the Australian Capital Territory and the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory. | WIKI |
| From 1947 until 1955 there were camps of visiting scientists on Heard Island (at Atlas Cove in the northwest, which was in 1969 again occupied by American scientists and expanded in 1971 by French scientists) and in 1971 on McDonald Island (at Williams Bay). | WIKI |
| Heard Island is dominated by Big Ben (an active volcano rising to a height of 2,745xc2xa0metres), and is largely covered by snow and glaciers. | UNESCO |
| McDonald Island is much smaller, covering only 100xc2xa0hectares at the time of inscription, and is surrounded by several smaller rocks and islands. | UNESCO |
| The only active sub-Antarctic volcanos are found on these islands, with the volcano on McDonald Island erupting after inscription and doubling the size of the island. | UNESCO |
| The island groupxe2x80x99s physical processes provide valuable indicators of the role of crustal plates in the formation of ocean basins and continents, of dynamic glacial changes in the coastal and submarine environment, and of atmospheric and oceanic warming. | UNESCO |
| This includes information about plume interaction with overlying crustal plates, as well as insights into mantle plume composition due to the widest range of isotopic compositions of strontium, neodymium, lead and helium known from any oceanic island volcano system. | UNESCO |
| Big Ben on Heard Island is the only known continuously active volcano on a sub-Antarctic island, whereas the volcano on MacDonald Island recently became active again after a 75,000 year period of dormancy, increasing significantly in size since inscription. | UNESCO |
| Heard Islandxe2x80x99s relatively shallow and fast-flowing glaciers respond quickly to climate change, faster than any glaciers elsewhere, making them particularly important in monitoring climate change. | UNESCO |
| Criterion (ix): Heard Island and McDonald Islands are outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological, biological, and evolutionary processes. | UNESCO |
| As the only sub-Antarctic islands virtually free of introduced species and with negligible modification by humans, they are a classic example of a sub-Antarctic island group with large populations of marine birds and mammals numbering in the millions, but low species diversity. | UNESCO |
| Endemic species demonstrating ongoing evolutionary processes include the Heard Island cormorant, the endemic subspecies of the Heard Island sheathbill, and a number of endemic invertebrates (some endemic to Heard and McDonald Islands, and some endemic to the Heard and McDonald Islands-Kerguelen region). | UNESCO |
| Heard Islandxe2x80x99s remoteness and harsh climate have ensured that human occupation, notably 19th century sealing, and research activity from 1947 to 1955, has been very restricted. | UNESCO |
| The McDonald Islands have only had two brief visits, and there has been no protracted stay ashore on Heard Island since a winter research programme in 1992, the first winter occupation of the island since 1954. | UNESCO |
| The area is managed as a strict nature reserve (IUCN Category 1a) by the Australian Antarctic Division through the Australian Governmentxe2x80x99s Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan that covers marine reserves in the same region as well as the World Heritage Area. | UNESCO |